Prelude to Foundation Chapter 3 University

STREELING UNIVERSITY-†¦ An institution of higher learning in the Streeling Sector of ancient Trantor†¦ Despite all these claims to fame in the fields of the humanities and sciences alike, it is not for those that the University looms large in today's consciousness. It would probably have come as a total surprise to the generations of scholars at the University to know that in later times Streeling University would be most remembered because a certain Hari Seldon, during the period of The Flight, had been in residence there for a short time. Encyclopedia Galactica 11. Hari Seldon remained uncomfortably silent for a while after Hummin's quiet statement. He shrank within himself in sudden recognition of his own deficiencies. He had invented a new science: psychohistory. He had extended the laws of probability in a very subtle manner to take into account new complexities and uncertainties and had ended up with elegant equations in innumerable unknowns. Possibly an infinite number; he couldn't tell. But it was a mathematical game and nothing more. He had psychohistory-or at least the basis of psychohistory but only as a mathematical curiosity. Where was the historical knowledge that could perhaps give some meaning to the empty equations? He had none. He had never been interested in history. He knew the outline of Heliconian history. Courses in that small fragment of the human story had, of course, been compulsory in the Heliconian schools. But what was there beyond that? Surely what else he had picked up was merely the bare skeletons that everyone gathered-half legend, the other half surely distorted. Still, how could one say that the Galactic Empire was dying? It had existed for ten thousand years as an accepted Empire and even before that, Trantor, as the capital of the dominating kingdom, had held what was a virtual empire for two thousand years. The Empire had survived the early centuries when whole sections of the Galaxy would now and then refuse to accept the end of their local independence. It had survived the vicissitudes that went with the occasional rebellions, the dynastic wars, some serious periods of breakdown. Most worlds had scarcely been troubled by such things and Trantor itself had grown steadily un til it was the worldwide human habitation that now called itself the Eternal World. To be sure, in the last four centuries, turmoil had increased somehow and there had been a rash of Imperial assassinations and takeovers. But even that was calming down and right now the Galaxy was as quiet as it had ever been. Under Cleon I and before him under his father, Stanel VI, the worlds were prosperous-and Cleon himself was not considered a tyrant. Even those who disliked the Imperium as an institution rarely had anything truly bad to say about Cleon, much as they might inveigh against Eto Demerzel. Why, then, should Hummin say that the Galactic Empire was dying-and with such conviction? Hummin was a journalist. He probably knew Galactic history in some detail and he had to understand the current situation in great detail. Was it this that supplied him with the knowledge that lay behind his statement? In that case, just what was the knowledge? Several times Seldon was on the point of asking, of demanding an answer, but there was something in Hummin's solemn face that stopped him. And there was something in his own ingrained belief that the Galactic Empire was a given, an axiom, the foundation stone on which all argument rested that prevented him too. After all, if that was wrong, he didn't want to know. No, he couldn't believe that he was wrong. The Galactic Empire could no more come to an end than the Universe itself could. Or, if the Universe did end, then-and only then-would the Empire end. Seldon closed his eyes, attempting to sleep but, of course, he could not. Would he have to study the history of the Universe in order to advance his theory of psychohistory? How could he? Twenty-five million worlds existed, each with its own endlessly complex history. How could he study all that? There were book-films in many volumes, he knew, that dealt with Galactic history. He had even skimmed one once for some now-forgotten reason and had found it too dull to view even halfway through. The book-films had dealt with important worlds. With some, it dealt through all or almost all their history; with others, only as they gained importance for a time and only till they faded away. He remembered having looked up Helicon in the index and having found only one citation. He had punched the keys that would turn up that citation and found Helicon included in a listing of worlds which, on one occasion, had temporarily lined up behind a certain claimant to the Imperial throne who had failed to make good his claim. Helicon had escaped retribution on that occasion, probably because it was not even sufficiently important to be punished. What good was such a history? Surely, psychohistory would have to take into account the actions and reactions and interactions of each world-each and every world. How could one study the history of twenty-five million worlds and consider all their possible interactions? It would surely be an impossible task and this was just one more reinforcement of the general conclusion that psychohistory was of theoretical interest but could never be put to any practical use. Seldon felt a gentle push forward and decided that the air-taxi must be decelerating. â€Å"What's up?† he asked. â€Å"I think we've come far enough,† said Hummin, â€Å"to risk a small stopover for a bite to eat, a glass of something or other, and a visit to a washroom.† And, in the course of the next fifteen minutes, during which the air-taxi slowed steadily, they came to a lighted recess. The taxi swerved inward and found a parking spot among five or six other vehicles. 12. Hummin's practiced eye seemed to take in the recess, the other taxis, the diner, the walkways, and the men and women all at a glance. Seldon, trying to look inconspicuous and again not knowing how, watched him, trying not to do so too intently. When they sat down at a small table and punched in their orders, Seldon, attempting to sound indifferent, said, â€Å"Everything okay?† â€Å"Seems so,† said Hummin. â€Å"How can you tell?† Hummin let his dark eyes rest on Seldon for a moment. â€Å"Instinct,† he said. â€Å"Years of news gathering. You look and know, ‘No news here.' â€Å" Seldon nodded and felt relieved. Hummin might have said it sardonically, but there must be a certain amount of truth to it. His satisfaction did not last through the first bite of his sandwich. He looked up at Hummin with his mouth full and with a look of hurt surprise on his face. Hummin said, â€Å"This is a wayside diner, my friend. Cheap, fast, and not very good. The food's homegrown and has an infusion of rather sharp yeast. Trantorian palates are used to it.† Seldon swallowed with difficulty. â€Å"But back in the hotel-â€Å" â€Å"You were in the Imperial Sector, Seldon. Food is imported there and where microfood is used it is high-quality. It is also expensive.† Seldon wondered whether to take another bite. â€Å"You mean that as long as I stay on Trantor-â€Å" Hummin made a hushing motion with his lips. â€Å"Don't give anyone the impression that you're used to better. There are places on Trantor where to be identified as an aristocrat is worse than being identified as an Outworlder. The food won't be so bad everywhere, I assure you. These wayside places have a reputation for low quality. If you can stomach that sandwich, you'll be able to eat anywhere on Trantor. And it won't hurt you. It's not decayed or bad or anything like that. It just has a harsh, strong taste and, honestly, you may grow accustomed to it. I've met Trantorians who spit out honest food and say it lacks that homegrown tang.† â€Å"Do they grow much food on Trantor?† asked Seldon. A quick side glance showed him there was no one seated in the immediate vicinity and he spoke quietly. â€Å"I've always heard it takes twenty surrounding worlds to supply the hundreds of freight ships required to feed Trantor every day.† â€Å"I know. And hundreds to carry off the load of wastes. And if you want to make the story really good, you say that the same freight ships carry food one way and waste the other. It's true that we import considerable quantities of food, but that's mostly luxury items. And we export considerable waste, carefully treated into inoffensiveness, as important organic fertilizer-every bit as important to other worlds as the food is to us. But that's only a small fraction of the whole.† â€Å"It is?† â€Å"Yes. In addition to fish in the sea, there are gardens and truck farms everywhere. And fruit trees and poultry and rabbits and vast microorganism farms-usually called yeast farms, though the yeast makes up a minority of the growths. And our wastes are mostly used right here at home to maintain all that growth. In fact, in many ways Trantor is very much like an enormous and overgrown space settlement. Have you ever visited one of those?† â€Å"Indeed I have.† â€Å"Space settlements are essentially enclosed cities, with everything artificially cycled, with artificial ventilation, artificial day and night, and so on. Trantor is different only in that even the largest space settlement has a population of only ten million and Trantor has four thousand times that. Of course, we have real gravity. And no space settlement can match us in our microfoods. We have yeast vats, fungal vats, and algae ponds vast beyond the imagination. And we are strong on artificial flavoring, added with no light hand. That's what gives the taste to what you're eating.† Seldon had gotten through most of his sandwich and found it not as offensive as the first bite had been. â€Å"And it won't affect me?† â€Å"It does hit the intestinal flora and every once in a while it afflicts some poor Outworlder with diarrhea, but that's rare, and you harden even to that quickly. Still, drink your milkshake, which you probably won't like. It contains an antidiarrhetic that should keep you safe, even if you tend to be sensitive to such things.† Seldon said querulously, â€Å"Don't talk about it, Hummin. A person can be suggestible to such things.† â€Å"Finish the milkshake and forget the suggestibility.† They finished the rest of their meal in silence and soon were on their way again. 13. They were now racing rapidly through the tunnel once more. Seldon decided to give voice to the question that had been nagging at him for the last hour or so. â€Å"Why do you say the Galactic Empire is dying?† Hummin turned to look at Seldon again. â€Å"As a journalist, I have statistics poured into me from all sides till they're squeezing out of my ears. And I'm allowed to publish very little of it. Trantor's population is decreasing. Twenty-five years ago, it stood at almost forty-five billion. â€Å"Partly, this decrease is because of a decline in the birthrate. To be sure, Trantor never has had a high birthrate. If you'll look about you when you're traveling on Trantor, you won't encounter very many children, considering the enormous population. But just the same it's declining. Then too there is emigration. People are leaving Trantor in greater numbers than are arriving.† â€Å"Considering its large population,† said Seldon, â€Å"that's not surprising.† â€Å"But it's unusual just the same because it hasn't happened before. Again, all over the Galaxy trade is stagnating. People think that because there are no rebellions at the moment and because things are quiet that all is well and that the difficulties of the past few centuries are over. However, political infighting, rebellions, and unrest are all signs of a certain vitality too. But now there's a general weariness. It's quiet, not because people are satisfied and prosperous, but because they're tired and have given up.† â€Å"Oh, I don't know,† said Seldon dubiously. â€Å"I do. And the antigrav phenomenon we've talked about is another case in point. We have a few gravitic lifts in operation, but new ones aren't being constructed. It's an unprofitable venture and there seems no interest in trying to make it profitable. The rate of technological advance has been slowing for centuries and is down to a crawl now. In some cases, it has stopped altogether. Isn't this something you've noticed? After all, you're a mathematician.† â€Å"I can't say I've given the matter any thought.† â€Å"No one does. It's accepted. Scientists are very good these days at saying that things are impossible, impractical, useless. They condemn any speculation at once. You, for instance-What do you think of psychohistory? It is theoretically interesting, but it is useless in any practical sense. Am I right?† â€Å"Yes and no,† said Seldon, annoyed. â€Å"It is useless in any practical sense, but not because my sense of adventure has decayed, I assure you. It really it useless.† â€Å"That, at least,† said Hummin with a trace of sarcasm, â€Å"is your impression in this atmosphere of decay in which all the Empire lives.† â€Å"This atmosphere of decay,† said Seldon angrily, â€Å"is your impression. Is it possible that you are wrong?† Hummin stopped and for a moment appeared thoughtful. Then he said, â€Å"Yes, I might be wrong. I am speaking only from intuition, from guesses. What I need is a working technique of psychohistory.† Seldon shrugged and did not take the bait. He said, â€Å"I don't have such a technique to give you.-But suppose you're right. Suppose the Empire it running down and will eventually stop and fall apart. The human species will still exist.† â€Å"Under what conditions, man? For nearly twelve thousand years, Trantor, under strong rulers, has largely kept the peace. There've been interruptions to that-rebellions, localized civil wars, tragedy in plenty-but, on the whole and over large areas, there has been peace. Why is Helicon so pro-Imperium? Your world, I mean. Because it is small and would be devoured by its neighbors were it not that the Empire keeps it secure.† â€Å"Are you predicting universal war and anarchy if the Empire fails?† â€Å"Of course. I'm not fond of the Emperor or of the Imperial institutions in general, but I don't have any substitute for it. I don't know what else will keep the peace and I'm not ready to let go until I have something else in hand.† Seldon said, â€Å"You talk as though you are in control of the Galaxy. You are not ready to let go? You must have something else in hand? Who are you to talk so?† â€Å"I'm speaking generally, figuratively,† said Hummin. â€Å"I'm not worried about Chetter Hummin personally. It might be said that the Empire will last my time; it might even show signs of improvement in my time. Declines don't follow a straight-line path. It may be a thousand years before the final crash and you might well imagine I would be dead then and, certainly, I will leave no descendants. As far as women are concerned, I have nothing but the occasional casual attachment and I have no children and intend to have none. I have given no hostages to fortune.-I looked you up after your talk, Seldon. You have no children either.† â€Å"I have parents and two brothers, but no children.† He smiled rather weakly. â€Å"I was very attached to a woman at one time, but it seemed to her that I was attached more to my mathematics.† â€Å"Were you?† â€Å"It didn't seem so to me, but it seemed so to her. So she left.† â€Å"And you have had no one since?† â€Å"No. I remember the pain too clearly as yet.† â€Å"Well then, it might seem we could both wait out the matter and leave it to other people, well after our time, to suffer. I might have been willing to accept that earlier, but no longer. For now I have a tool; I am in command.† â€Å"What's your tool?† asked Seldon, already knowing the answer. â€Å"You!† said Hummin. And because Seldon had known what Hummin would say, he wasted no time in being shocked or astonished. He simply shook his head and said, â€Å"You are quite wrong. I am no tool fit for use.† â€Å"Why not?† Seldon sighed. â€Å"How often must I repeat it? Psychohistory is not a practical study. The difficulty is fundamental. All the space and time of the Universe would not suffice to work out the necessary problems.† â€Å"Are you certain of that?† â€Å"Unfortunately, yes.† â€Å"There's no question of your working out the entire future of the Galactic Empire, you know. You needn't trace out in detail the workings of every human being or even of every world. There are merely terrain questions you must answer: Will the Galactic Empire crash and, if so, when? What will be the condition of humanity afterward? Can anything be done to prevent the crash or to ameliorate conditions afterward? These are comparatively simple questions, it seems to me.† Seldon shook his head and smiled sadly. â€Å"The history of mathematics is full of simple questions that had only the most complicated of answers-or none at all.† â€Å"Is there nothing to be done? I can see that the Empire is falling, but I can't prove it. All my conclusions are subjective and I cannot show that I am not mistaken. Because the view is a seriously unsettling one, people would prefer not to believe my subjective conclusion and nothing will be done to prevent the Fall or even to cushion it. You could prove the coming Fall or, for that matter, disprove it.† â€Å"But that is exactly what I cannot do. I can't find you proof where none exists. I can't make a mathematical system practical when it isn't. I can't find you two even numbers that will yield an odd number as a sum, no matter how vitally your all the Galaxy-may need that odd number.† Hummin said, â€Å"Well then, you're part of the decay. You're ready to accept failure.† â€Å"What choice have I?† â€Å"Can't you try? However useless the effort may seem to you to be, have you anything better to do with your life? Have you some worthier goal? Have you a purpose that will justify you in your own eyes to some greater extent?† Seldon's eyes blinked rapidly. â€Å"Millions of worlds. Billions of cultures. Quadrillions of people. Decillions of interrelationships.-And you want me to reduce it to order.† â€Å"No, I want you to try. For the sake of those millions of worlds, billions of cultures, and quadrillions of people. Not for the Emperor. Not for Demerzel. For humanity.† â€Å"I will fail,† said Seldon. â€Å"Then we will be no worse off. Will you try?† And against his will and not knowing why, Seldon heard himself say, â€Å"I will try.† And the course of his life was set. 14. The journey came to its end and the air-taxi moved into a much larger lot than the one at which they had eaten. (Seldon still remembered the taste of the sandwich and made a wry face.) Hummin turned in his taxi and came back, placing his credit slip in a small pocket on the inner surface of his shirt. He said, â€Å"You're completely safe here from anything outright and open. This is the Streeling Sector.† â€Å"Streeling?† â€Å"It's named for someone who first opened up the area to settlement, I imagine. Most of the sectors are named for someone or other, which means that most of the names are ugly and some are hard to pronounce. Just the same, if you try to have the inhabitants here change Streeling to Sweetsmell or something like that, you'll have a fight on your hands.† â€Å"Of course,† said Seldon, sniffing loudly, â€Å"it isn't exactly Sweetsmell.† â€Å"Hardly anywhere in Trantor is, but you'll get used to it.† â€Å"I'm glad we're here,† said Seldon. â€Å"Not that I like it, but I got quite tired sitting in the taxi. Getting around Trantor must be a horror. Back on Helicon, we can get from any one place to any other by air, in far less time than it took us to travel less than two thousand kilometers here.† â€Å"We have air-jets too.† â€Å"But in that case-â€Å" â€Å"I could arrange an air-taxi ride more or less anonymously. It would have been much more difficult with an air-jet. And regardless of how safe it is here, I'd feel better if Demerzel didn't know exactly where you were.-As a matter of fact, we're not done yet. We're going to take the Expressway for the final stage.† Seldon knew the expression. â€Å"One of those open monorails moving on an electromagnetic field, right?† â€Å"Right.† â€Å"We don't have them on Helicon. Actually, we don't need them there. I rode on an Expressway the first day I was on Trantor. It took me from the airport to the hotel. It was rather a novelty, but if I were to use it all the time, I imagine the noise and crowds would become overpowering.† Hummin looked amused. â€Å"Did you get lost?† â€Å"No, the signs were useful. There was trouble getting on and off, but I was helped. Everyone could tell I was an Outworlder by my clothes, I now realize. They seemed eager to help, though; I guess because it was amusing to watching me hesitate and stumble.† â€Å"As an expert in Expressway travel by now, you will neither hesitate nor stumble.† Hummin said it pleasantly enough, though there was a slight twitch to the corners of his mouth. â€Å"Come on, then.† They sauntered leisurely along the walkway, which was lit to the extent one might expect of an overcast day and that brightened now and then as though the sun occasionally broke through the clouds. Automatically, Seldon looked upward to see if that were indeed the case, but the â€Å"sky† above was blankly luminous. Hummin saw this and said, â€Å"This change in brightness seems too suit the human psyche. There are days when the street seems to be in bright sunlight and days when it is rather darker than it is now.† â€Å"But no rain or snow?† â€Å"Or hail or sleet. No. Nor high humidity nor bitter cold. Trantor has its points, Seldon, even now.† There were people walking in both directions and there were a considerable number of young people and also some children accompanying the adults, despite what Hummin had said about the birthrate. All seemed reasonably prosperous and reputable. The two sexes were equally represented and the clothing was distinctly more subdued than it had been in the Imperial Sector. His own costume, as chosen by Hummin, fit right in. Very few were wearing hats and Seldon thankfully removed his own and swung it at his side. There was no deep abyss separating the two sides of the walkway and as Hummin had predicted in the Imperial Sector, they were walking at what seemed to be ground level. There were no vehicles either and Seldon pointed this out to Hummin. Hummin said, â€Å"There are quite a number of them in the Imperial Sector because they're used by officials. Elsewhere, private vehicles are rare and those that are used have separate tunnels reserved for them. Their use is not really necessary, since we have Expressways and, for shorter distances, moving corridors. For still shorter distances, we have walkways and we can use our legs.† Seldon heard occasional muted sighs and creaks and saw, some distance off, the endless passing of Expressway cars. â€Å"There it is,† he said, pointing. â€Å"I know, but let us move on to a boarding station. There are more cars there and it is easier to get on.† Once they were safely ensconced in an Expressway car, Seldon turned to Hummin and said, â€Å"What amazes me is how quiet the Expressways are. I realize that they are mass-propelled by an electromagnetic field, but it seems quiet even for that.† He listened to the occasional metallic groan as the car they were on shifted against its neighbors. â€Å"Yes, it's a marvelous network,† said Hummin, â€Å"but you don't see it at its peak. When I was younger, it was quieter than it is now and there are those who say that there wasn't as much as a whisper fifty years ago-though I suppose we might make allowance for the idealization of nostalgia.† â€Å"Why isn't it that way now?† â€Å"Because it isn't maintained properly. I told you about decay.† Seldon frowned. â€Å"Surely, people don't sit around and say, ‘We're decaying. Let's let the Expressways fall apart.' â€Å" â€Å"No, they don't. It's not a purposeful thing. Bad spots are patched, decrepit coaches refurbished, magnets replaced. However, it's done in more slapdash fashion, more carelessly, and at greater intervals. There just aren't enough credits available.† â€Å"Where have the credits gone?† â€Å"Into other things. We've had centuries of unrest. The navy is much larger and many times more expensive than it once was. The armed forces are much better-paid, in order to keep them quiet. Unrest, revolts, and minor blazes of civil war all take their toll.† â€Å"But it's been quiet under Cleon. And we've had fifty years of peace.† â€Å"Yes, but soldiers who are well-paid would resent having that pay reduced just because there is peace. Admirals resist mothballing ships and having themselves reduced in rank simply because there is less for them to do. So the credits still go-unproductively-to the armed forces and vital areas of the social good are allowed to deteriorate. That's what I call decay. Don't you? Don't you think that eventually you would fit that sort of view into your psychohistorical notions?† Seldon stirred uneasily. Then he said, â€Å"Where are we going, by the way?† â€Å"Streeling University.† â€Å"Ah, that's why the sector's name was familiar. I've heard of the University.† â€Å"I'm not surprised. Trantor has nearly a hundred thousand institutions of higher learning and Streeling is one of the thousand or so at the top of the heap.† â€Å"Will I be staying there?† â€Å"For a while. University campuses are unbreathable sanctuaries, by and large. You will be safe there.† â€Å"But will I be welcome there?† â€Å"Why not? It's hard to find a good mathematician these days. They might be able to use you. And you might be able to use them too-and for more than just a hiding place.† â€Å"You mean, it will be a place where I can develop my notions.† â€Å"You have promised,† said Hummin gravely. â€Å"I have promised to try, † said Seldon and thought to himself that it was about like promising to try to make a rope out of sand. 15. Conversation had run out after that and Seldon watched the structures of the Streeling Sector as they passed. Some were quite low, while some seemed to brush the â€Å"sky.† Wide crosspassages broke the progression and frequent alleys could be seen. At one point, it struck him that though the buildings rose upward they also swept downward and that perhaps they were deeper than they were high. As soon as the thought occurred to him, he was convinced it was true. Occasionally, he saw patches of green in the background, farther back from the Expressway, and even small trees. He watched for quite a while and then became aware that the light was growing dimmer. He squinted about and turned to Hummin, who guessed the question. â€Å"The afternoon is waning,† he said, â€Å"and night is coming on.† Seldon's eyebrows raised and the corners of his mouth turned downward. â€Å"That's impressive. I have a picture of the entire planet darkening and then, some hours from now, lighting up again.† Hummin smiled his small, careful smile. â€Å"Not quite, Seldon. The planet is never turned off altogether-or turned on either. The shadow of twilight sweeps across the planet gradually, followed half a day later by the slow brightening of dawn. In fact, the effect follows the actual day and night above the domes quite closely, so that in higher altitudes day and night change length with the seasons.† Seldon shook his head, â€Å"But why close in the planet and then mimic what would be in the open?† â€Å"I presume because people like it better that way. Trantorians like the advantages of being enclosed, but they don't like to be reminded of it unduly, just the same. You know very little about Trantorian psychology, Seldon.† Seldon flushed slightly. He was only a Heliconian and he knew very little about the millions of worlds outside Helicon. His ignorance was not confined to Trantor. How, then, could he hope to come up with any practical applications for his theory of psychohistory? How could any number of people-all together-know enough? It reminded Seldon of a puzzle that had been presented to him when he was young: Can you have a relatively small piece of platinum, with handholds affixed, that could not be lifted by the bare, unaided strength of any number of people, no matter how many? The answer was yes. A cubic meter of platinum weighs 22,420 kilograms under standard gravitational pull. If it is assumed that each person could heave 120 kilograms up from the ground, then 188 people would suffice to lift the platinum.-But you could not squeeze 188 people around the cubic meter so that each one could get a grip on it. You could perhaps not squeeze more than 9 people around it. And levers or other such devices were not allowed. It had to be â€Å"bare, unaided strength.† In the same way, it could be that there was no way of getting enough people to handle the total amount of knowledge required for psychohistory, even if the facts were stored in computers rather than in individual human brains. Only so many people could gather round the knowledge, so to speak, and communicate it. Hummin said, â€Å"You seem to be in a brown study, Seldon.† â€Å"I'm considering my own ignorance.† â€Å"A useful task. Quadrillions could profitably join you.-But it's time to get off.† Seldon looked up. â€Å"How can you tell?† â€Å"Just as you could tell when you were on the Expressway your first day on Trantor. I go by the signs.† Seldon caught one just as it went by: STREELING UNIVERSITY-3 MINUTES. â€Å"We get off at the next boarding station. Watch your step.† Seldon followed Hummin off the coach, noting that the sky was deep purple now and that the walkways and corridors and buildings were all lighting up, suffused with a yellow glow. It might have been the gathering of a Heliconian night. Had he been placed here blindfolded and had the blindfold been removed, he might have been convinced that he was in some particularly well-built-up inner region of one of Helicon's larger cities. â€Å"How long do you suppose I will remain at Streeling University, Hummin?† he asked. Hummin said in his usual calm fashion, â€Å"That would be hard to say, Seldon. Perhaps your whole life.† â€Å"What!† â€Å"Perhaps not. But your life stopped being your own once you gave that paper on psychohistory. The Emperor and Demerzel recognized your importance at once. So did I. For all I know, so did many others. You see, that means you don't belong to yourself anymore.†

Neuroanatomy Paper Essay

The limbic system is a diverse collection of cortical and subcortical regions that are crucial for normal human behavior (Martin, 2003). According to Martin (2003), nineteenth century neurologist and anatomist recognized that damage to particular parts of the human brain were associated with disorders of emotion and memory; these lesions , unlike those of the cerebellum, occipital lobe, or cortical regions around the central sulcus, for example, spared perception and movement. This research lead to the understanding that the neural systems of emotions, learning and memory, and their interconnections, are grouped into a single system, called the limbic system. Based on Martin (2003), brain structures for emotions, learning and memory have been conserved throughout much of the vertebrate evolution, reflecting the common and important need for these functions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The diverse functions of the limbic system include important roles in learning and memory and in emotions – and their behavioral and visceral consequences. According to Martin (2003), many of the structures have a C-shaped configuration; the limbic system has three C-shaped components: (1) the limbic association cortex, (2) the hippocampal formation and fornix, (3) and part of the amygdala (bed of stria terminalis) and the stria terminalis.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Hippocampal circuits are engaged in consolidating explicit memories, such as the conscious recollection of facts, and in forming spatial memories; the hippocampal formation works closely with adjoining entorrhinal cortex, so much so that the two are functionally inseparable (Martin, 2003). According to Martin (2003), these structures receive complex sensory and cognitive information from the limbic association cortex; damage to the hippocampal formation or entorrhinal cortex, depending on the extent, can result in severe and pervasive anterograde amnesia. As Martin stated, in this form of amnesia, impairments occur in semantic memory, such as knowledge of facts, people, and objects, including new word meaning, and the episodic memory of events that have a specific spatial and temporal context, such meeting a friend last week; and by contrast, patients with hippocampal damage are capable of remembering procedures and actions (i.e., implicit or non-declarative memory), and they retain the capacity for a variety of simple forms of learning and memory.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The output neurons of the hippocampal formation are pyramidal neurons, similar to the neocortex covering most of the cerebral hemisphere, and they are located in the hippocampus and subiculum (Martin, 2003). Two output systems can be distinguished within the fornix, from the subiculum and the hippocampus; although these systems are involved in the cognitive aspects of learning and memory, it is not yet understood how their functions differ.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The innervations of the limbic system by the major neurotransmitter regulatory systems appear to be particularly important for normal thoughts, moods, and behaviors. This conclusion is based on the observation that many of the drugs used to treat psychiatric illness – the disorders of thought, such as schizophrenia, and of mood, such as depression and anxiety – selectively affect one of the neurotransmitters systems; this neurotransmitter system have direct and widespread connections with the limbic system (Martin, 2003).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pyramidal cells of the entorhinal cortex send their axons to the dentate gyrus to synapses on granule cells, which is the perforrant pathway. Based on Martin (2003), it is not known how the myriad connections of the entorhial cortex and hippocampal formation are organized to play a role in memory consolidation; however, an important clue exists: the strength of many synapses in the hippocampal formation can be modified under various experimental conditions.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The amygdala has three major divisions, which collectively are involved in emotions and their behavioral expression: the basolateral nuclei, the central nuclei, and the corticomedal nuclei References Martin, J. H. (2003). Neuroanatomy: Text and Atlas. New York: McGraw-Hill Professional.   

Consitutional issue in Brandy V HREOC Essay

The case Brandy V Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission challenges the constitutional validity of the scheme for the enforcement of Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (HREOC) determination under the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth). The High Court of Australia had decided that since HREOC was not constituted as a court according to Chapter III of the Constitution, and therefore was not able to exercise judicial power of commonwealth and enforce any subsequent decisions. The Constitution is divided into separate chapters dealing separately with the parliament, executive and the Judicature. The â€Å"pure† doctrine of separation of powers prescribes that the functions of the three arms of government be clearly and institutionally separated . It is important to note that Australia does not have a pure separation of power because we inherited the British Westminster tradition. For example, Chapter I legislative parliament and Chapter II executive are seemingly two independent arms of Constitution, but in practice, this distinction between the executive and legislature is blurred, such that the Commonwealth Ministers are simultaneously members of the executive and the legislature, as it is required by s 64 of the Commonwealth Constitution. However, there is a rigid separation of power in Judicature as described by Chapter III of the Constitution, this characteristic is evident in Brandy V HREOC. The decision made by High Court invalidated the enfo rcement mechanism for decisions of HREOC on the grounds that it infringed the doctrine of separation of powers. This is also evident in the Boilermaker’s case3 whereby the High Court argued the relevant legislation was impermissible under the separation of judicial power principle. The High Court determines the Constitutional issue as the judges seeks to define â€Å"judicial power†. Though the nature and scope of federal judicial power was not exhaustively defined, but High Court concluded only those courts under Chapter III of the Constitution can exercise federal judicial power, however HREOC is not a Chapter III court, so it could not exercise judicial power of Commonwealth. More specifically, High Court held that ss 25ZAA, 25ZAB and 25ZAC of the Racial Discriminate Act 1975 (CTH) governing the registration and enforcement of HREOC determinations were invalid  because those provisions had the effect of making HREOC determination binding and conclusive â€Å"as if it was an order made by the Federal Court†4. A judicial order made by the federal Court takes effect as an exercise of Commonwealth Judicial power, but a determination by the HREOC is neither made nor registered in the exercise of judicial power. On this basis, the High Court held t he relevant provisions of the amended Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (CTH) invalid, as it contravenes Chapter III of the Constitution. The High Court’s decision did not address the subject matter of the case, the human rights issue was not even mentioned throughout the reasoning of the judgements. Personally, I believe the decision is technically fair as it is based on the separation of power, but its lack of consideration in human rights issue resulted the victim suffering the consequence of racial abuse without any legal action being acted upon because it could not be enforced by HREOC. So the question remains, can the separation of power really act as safeguard to individual rights or is it merely legal fiction? Apart from resolving the Constitutional issue and finalized the dispute. The decision made by High Court also invalidated the amendments of Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth), which means from the day High Court passed on the final decision, HREOC, and other similar commissions including the Industrial Relations Commission and the Australian Broadcasting Authority could not make any determination and enforce any judicial decisions by registering their determination in the Federal Court5. Ironically, the contemporary notion ‘access to justice’ seems to be ignored as the doctrine of separation of power is highlighted. The amendments was made to create efficiency and accessibility of the administration of justice in human rights, so that the public can claim their human rights without going to the court, which is usually rather costly, overly formal, often intimidating6. As the invalidation of amendments takes place, previous costly and problematic enforcement procedures of the Commission returns, the restatement of the importance of the constitutional doctrine of separation of powers and uncertainty in the protection of human rights also are evident7. It is almost rhetorical what role does HREOC provide to the public in terms of claiming their human rights since the invalidation of  amendments? This question illustrates the tension created between the courts that are vested with judicial power and commissions as a result of High Court’s decision. The inconsistency between Commonwealth legislation and the commission which is appointed under Commonwealth legislation, in which resulted invalidation of the amendments shows the dominance in which the High Court has over the other branches of the government. As stated explicitly in s 109 of the Constitution: â€Å"when a law of a state is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be invalid†8. The concept of parliamentary supremacy and sovereignty is significant in the decision of High Court. It is mentioned briefly above that Australia inherited the Westminster tradition from United Kingdom, as under British Constitutional law, the Parliament has absolute sovereignty and therefore has the power to make or unmake any law. Though this idea of absolute power is less obvious in Australia as we have doctrine of separation of power, but the Brandy case surely highlighted the fact that separation of power in Australian Constitution is not clear and the parliamentary supremacy has the absolute power over other branches of government. Therefore, the High Court relied upon arguments of separation of judicial power in arriving at conclusion, rather than articulating principles relating to those individual rights as justifying those decisions. The decision made by the High Court concerns with constitutional validity rather than the issue of racial discrimination, thus it is fair to say the decision is legally justified but it did not morally justified. This can be explained by the rigid characteristics of western law as discussed by Patrick Parkinson, namely autonomy of law, which is conceptually distinct from custom, morality, religion or politics . This concept is reflected in the Brandy case that High Court adopted legal formalism (an interpretation of legal texts focussing closely on the words, a rule based approach with little or no regard to social, political consideration ) and procedural approach rather than legal instrumentalism (a view that creativity in the  interpretation of legal texts is justified in order to assure that the law serves good public policy and social interests ) and substantive approach. The High Court seeks to achieve justice by consistently applying rules and procedures that shape a fair, consistent and predictable legal system and constrains government arbitrariness. It does not concern whether the end result will be substantive, as such it satisfies ethical, emotional or political factors. This notion of justice is more concerned with process and procedure than the result. As Selznick says, â€Å"legality has to do mainly with how policies and rules are made and applied rather than with their contents â€Å". As a result, High Court held that the enforcement of determinations administered by HREOC was invalid based on the technical ground of separation of judicial power, but ignoring the moral issues concerned in the case as they do not promote fairness and consistency. However, the High Court is now shifting to a system where it seeks to balance out the strict legal framework and social interests. In the context of human rights, this shift is reflected in Australian Capital Television V commonwealth13 and Nationwide News Pty Ltd V Wills14, where the High Court implied issues of human rights in contrast with Brandy V HREOC. In conclusion, in the case of Brandy V HREOC, from a constitutional law perspective, the decision made by the High Court consolidated the separation of power and the exercise of judicial power. However, it is obvious that the rigid characteristics of traditional western law have contributed towards the inefficiencies to the guarantees of human rights issue. Bibliography: Dicey, A. V. Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution. Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1982 Dr Imtiaz Omar, Individual Rights and Judicial Power: the underlying equation (1995) Australasian Law Teachers Associations Catriona Cook et al, Laying Down the law (6th edition, 2002) LLB100 Supplementary Reading, University of Wollongong Imtiaz Omar, â€Å"Darkness On the Edge of Town: The High Court And Human Rights in the Brandy case† (1995) 2 Australia Journal of Human Rights Patrick Gunnings, â€Å"Chapter III courts: Evolution of Australia’s Federal Judiciary† (1995) 6 Public Law Review Alison Gooly, ‘modern framework after Brandy’, (University of Wollongong, 1997) http://www.hreoc.gov.au/racial_discrimination/guide_law/landmark.html

Module 5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Module 5 - Essay Example The number of visits made have a mean of 2.86 with a variance of 4.87. The standard deviation is 2.21 confirming the spread of the data. Group A has wide variations in terms of among the group observations. As Richmond, R (2006) puts it, the amount of variations in a group determine how the elements of the group are spread and how the differences amount to. The workers in group A are quite different from each other and it will not be a good idea to hire them due to this. Both groups have the same mean of 79.1 but the workers in group B have almost the same traits than in group A. When it comes to getting the services of a certain group, Group B is most likely due to its homogeneity. Group A has a standard deviation high above the expected of 24.12. In business, the mean is the best measure of central tendency. For example when you are reporting the sales you made in a day, the mean in the figure to use sine it shows what you have done in overall. On the other hand, while dealing in shares, the median is the most important as it shows the price which is the expectation of many. It shows where many people would like or got their shares in. In exports, the mode is the most important since it determines the frequency of doing business as well as the expected profit. Mode is also applicable when one is dealing with prediction of future business

Balanced score card Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Balanced score card - Coursework Example The funding strategy mainly entails developing coalitions with the congress members. The coalition aims at gaining the support of the congress members on their expansion activities, and also aligning the funding towards foreign relations. The company also has the objective of increasing the number of marketing vehicles by 12 in the next one year. Achievement of this objective will lead to excellence in marketing and publicity campaigns. The vehicles will be budgeted for in the next fiscal year. The marketing vehicles will increase the number of viewers and thus MTN ratings. Diverse marketing vehicle strategy will be used; for example, billboards, advertisements, social media, and youth events (Kaplan & Norton, n.d.). Organizational capacity entails the ability of MTN to realize and maintain positive change that ensures broadcast effectiveness. This will be achieved through enhancing programming quality and also effective human capital. Adequate duration for ensuring adequate organizational capacity is 12 months, which is required for realizing 200% organizational capacity development. The lag measure for illustrating adequate organizational capacity entails; initiating programs that enhance quality, and also increasing revenue by minimizing production expenses. The lead measure for enhanced organizational capacity entails enhancing the market share. This can be effectively realized by adequately building the social media presence. Improvement in organization capacity will directly result in 40% improvement in the organizational productivity. The productivity improvement will also be directly determined by adoption of the quality improvement programs. Employee must be involved so as to realize ef fective organizational capacity. Participation acts as incentive for the employees to engage in the programs on quality improvement. The expenses required for realizing organization capacity are adequately budgeted

THE ROLE OF LETTERS OF CREDIT IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESSES Essay

THE ROLE OF LETTERS OF CREDIT IN INTERNATIONAL BUSINESSES - Essay Example Secondly, when there is the case of clear-cut fraud or forgery on the part of the buyer (Seyoum, 2009). Thus the letter of credit acts as some form of international collateral for international business transactions unless these two fundamental breeches occur (Craig, 1999 p360). In Wood Hall Ltd V Pipeline Authority [1979] 141 CLR 443 457 the landmark ruling by the Judge was â€Å"The Letter of Credit ... is as good as cash in the eyes of those whom it is issued and that is essentially its function† (Dixon, 2004 p392). This paper therefore examines the use of letters of credit in international business. It begins by critically assessing whether or not it is the cornerstone of international business around the globe. It goes further to examine the evolution of the concept and use of letters of credit in modern business. The assessment of alternatives to letters of credit follows. The paper ends by critically examining the advantages and disadvantages of letters of credits in in ternational business. Letters of Credit as the Lifeline in International Business In a landmark ruling, Lord Justice Kerr stated that Letters of credit are the â€Å"lifeblood to international commerce† (Harbottle (Mercantile) Ltd V National Westminster Bank Ltd [1978] QB 14 6 155). In this ruling, he emphasises the importance of the use of letters of credit in international business. This is reemphasised by Lord Justice Griffith two years later in the case of Power Garber International Ltd V National Bank of Kuwait SAK [1981] 2 Lloyd Rp. Once again, the Judge stated that letters of credit are important and need to be honoured and preserved to enhance international trade (Schmitthoff, 1988). Basically, the use of letters of credit is very important because it enables...In this ruling, he emphasises the importance of the use of letters of credit in international business. This is reemphasised by Lord Justice Griffith two years later in the case of Power Garber International Lt d V National Bank of Kuwait SAK [1981] 2 Lloyd Rp. Once again, the Judge stated that letters of credit are important and need to be honoured and preserved to enhance international trade (Schmitthoff, 1988). Basically, the use of letters of credit is very important because it enables businesses to move about freely in other nations and communities with a collateral that is as good as cash. This therefore presents a positive insight into business across borders and enhances positive business traits and builds partnerships across borders. Also, there have been attempts by the international community to unify the system for the use of letters of credit using the Uniform Customs & Practices for Documentary Credits in 175 states across the world (Schmitthoff, 1988 p573). These nations have Central Banks that monitor and control the issue and cashing of letters of credits. However, in spite of the assurances that letters of credit give, it has â€Å"a failure rate of 50%† (Schmitthoff, 1988). This therefore implies that one out of every two transactions based on letters of credits fail around the globe. This is a piece of alarming statistics that makes it wiser to consider the use of alternative methods of transacting business international or at least a high level of professional scepticism in the field of international payments for business owners.

Summary Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 28

Summary - Assignment Example The use of a mycorrhizal fungus in the experiment was employed leading to effective data collection on the modes of communication. The plants used the fungi hyphae network to communicate with each other including the transfer of nutrients between the plants. Plants communicate on the issues including insect attack. It was found that plants reacted to the scent or volatile organic compounds by developing defense or emitting chemicals that attract aphid eating wasps which feed on the aphids infesting the area. The separation of the plants by covering those using plastics and pots gives a clear indication of the communication process. The separation of the plants both using pot and plastic bags in the air, led to no communication between the plants. Thus, the findings supported the analogy of communication between plants. Therefore, it can be proven without doubt that plants communicate effectively. From the research of Richard karban and Babikova, it is evident that communication between plants is a continuous and regular. In conclusion, the communication between plants was not understood until the findings of the various researches were

Vietnam's Market Potential Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Vietnam's Market Potential - Case Study Example As Vuong, Q.H. (2003) states, Vietnam provides a very potential market for Pepsi products. There is great amount of interest in these products and raw materials are locally available from agricultural commodities that are produced in large quantities. In every meeting, the first question is if they should go to Vietnam. Many global companies have preceded Americans in venturing in Vietnam. Daewoo by South Korea was the only large investor but other companies that have heavily invested in Vietnam are Sony Honda, Toshiba, and British Petroleum bad Peugeot. The first US Company to market legally in Vietnam was Carrier, which windows air conditioners which appeared in Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi stores. Pepsi and coca cola companies were also first to venture in Vietnam. Vietnamese Market Potentials and Challenges Experts believe that the market of Vietnam has great long term potentials. However, compared to Thailand, it is less economically developed, and it might take it a minimum of two decades to reach the economic level of Thailand today. However, the location of the country at the center of Asia, together with enough low wage work-force powerfully attracts foreign investors into the country like a magnet. Presence of neighboring countries like Thailand and Malaysia which are fast developing has made Vietnam lag behind. Politically, the Vietnam War isolated it from industrial west as well as United States. Recently, the country has tried to solve many problems with Chinese government and currently, china is an important economic ally of Vietnam. Vietnamese population is so poor that they only earn $200 per capita (International Monetary Fund, 2010). This may still offer sufficient market for Pepsi products like tomato and chili sauces. Infrastructure is also under developed where only 10% of roads are paved and electricity is also very unreliable (Anonymous). However, manufacture of Pepsi may not be affected because raw materials are readily available within the locality and labor force is sufficient and cheap. For every 100 people, there is rarely a telephone available and the system of banking is underdeveloped too. However, Vietnamese communist party is currently struggling to adapt market economy principle and bureaucracy. With layers built up in decades of the rules of communist, which slow change pace. State committee for investment and cooperation is the key agency and because every agency wants to make the final decision, then the investment climate must be improved, if Pepsi and other companies are to thrive well in this country. How Western Countries can Help Improve the Political Climate in Vietnam Western countries can sign business contracts with Vietnam in order to improve the market conditions in Vietnam, besides ensuring a ready market for the produc ts. Western countries should also stop interfering with foreign affairs of Vietnam, so as to prevent political wars that are frequently witnessed in Vietnam. Diplomatic relations with Vietnam, for example the one reestablished by president Clinton on 11th July, 1995, should be encouraged among western countries because they boost business in Vietnam (Anonymous). Lack of diplomatic relations in Vietnam makes Vietnamese exports difficult to enter western countries markets like US because their tariffs are prohibitive. However, despite the initiatives of Washington, Vietnam does still qualify to the status of favored nation. Bilateral trade agreements can also help open up foreign investment trade in Vietnam besides giving exporters of Vietnam western markets accessibility and this may also largely benefit Pepsi. For example, the US and Vietnam bilateral trade agreement in July 2000 allowed Vietnamese exporters to easily access US markets, thus widening their market and hence

Foundations in Evidence based Practice Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Foundations in Evidence based Practice - Essay Example Clinical expertise and patient preference are the overriding components of this model with clinical expertise coming to the forefront, when patients are too frail to provide adequate patient preferences Nursing professionals are taught the means of collecting clinical evidence through the evaluation of information from clinical research. However not always is pertinent and adequate information available on a timely basis. In addition clinical evidence may be at odds to patient preference and the clinical experience for the given clinical problem. Thus mere adherence to clinical evidence does not contribute to evidence based practice. (Steinberg & Luce, 2005). Patients are individuals with their individualistic desires in the treatment and management of their clinical problems. Quality of life and quantity of life are two perspectives in clinical problems. Clinical evidence may focus on one of these aspects, while patient preference may be for the other. Clinical evidence cannot be imposed through a paternalistic attitude ignoring the dignity and autonomy of the patient. Clinical experience provides the means in such situations to respect the preferences of the patient. It is this blending of clinical evidence with clinical experience and judgment that provides the means to respect patient autonomy and deliver evidence based practice. (Cody, 2003). Support and information, attentiveness and respect for the individual contribute to patient autonomy (Proot, Crebolder, Abu-Saad, Macor & ter Muelen, 2000). Care in the critical care units involves high costs due to the involvement of expensive life supporting devices like the mechanical ventilator. Clinical evidence suggests that three to six percent of patients in critical care units would require extended use of the mechanical ventilator and the prognosis is such cases is a high rate of mortality and poor quality of life in the rest. Thus clinical

The Story of the Flood- the Epic of Gilgamesh Essay Example for Free

The Story of the Flood- the Epic of Gilgamesh Essay You know the city Shurrupak, it stands on the banks of Euphrates? That city grew old and the gods that were in it were old. There was Anu,-lord of the firmament, their father, and warrior Enlil their counsellor, Ninurta the helper, and Ennugi watcher over canals; and with them also was Ea. In those days the world teemed, the people multiplied, the world bellowed like a wild bull, and the great god was aroused by the clamour. Enlil heard the clamour and he said to the gods in council, The uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel. So the gods agreed to exterminate mankind. Enlil did this, but Ea because of his oath warned me in a dream. He whispered their words to my house of reeds, Reed-house, reedhouse! Wall, O wall, hearken reed-house, wall reflect; O man of Shurrupak, son of Ubara-Tutu; tear down your house and build a boat, abandon possessions and look for life, despise worldly goods and save your soul alive. Tear down your house, I say, and build a boat. These are the measurements of the barque as you shall build her: let hex beam equal her length, let her deck be roofed like the vault that covers the abyss; then take up into the boat the seed of all living creatures.†. . . . . In the first light of dawn all my household gathered round me, the children brought pitch and the men whatever was necessary. On the fifth day I laid the keel and the ribs, then I made fast the planking. The ground-space was one acre, each side of the deck measured one hundred and twenty cubits, making a square. I built six decks below, seven in all, I divided them into nine sections with bulkheads between. I drove in wedges where needed, I saw to the punt poles, and laid in supplies. The carriers brought oil in baskets, I poured pitch into the furnace and asphalt and oil; more oil was consumed in caulking, and more again the master of the boat took into his stores. I slaughtered bullocks for the people and every day I killed sheep. I gave the shipwrights wine to drink as though it were river water, raw wine and red wine and oil and white wine. There was feasting then as -there is at the time of the New Years festival; I myself anointed my head. On the seventh day the boat was complete. . . . . . For six days and six nights the winds blew, torrent and tempest and flood overwhelmed the world, tempest and flood raged together like warring hosts. When the seventh day dawned the storm from the south subsided, the sea grew calm, the, flood was stilled; I looked at the face of the world and there was silence, all mankind was turned to clay. The surface of the sea stretched as flat as a roof-top; I opened a hatch and the light fell on my face. Then I bowed low, I sat down and I wept, the tears streamed down my face, for on every side was the waste of water. I looked for land in vain, but fourteen leagues distant there appeared a mountain, and there the boat grounded; on the mountain of Nisir the boat held fast, she held fast and did not budge . . . . When the seventh day dawned I loosed a dove and let her go. She flew away, but finding no resting-place she returned. Then I loosed a swallow, and she flew away but finding no restingplace she returned. I loosed a raven, she saw that the waters had retreated, she ate, she flew around, she cawed, and she did not come back. . . . .

Preparation And Recrystallisation Of Aspirin Biology Essay

Preparation And Recrystallisation Of Aspirin Biology Essay The objective of this experiment is to enable us to understand and conduct the synthesis of aspirin, understand the skills of recrystallisation and the technique of melting point determination. The main procedures are preparation of aspirin, recrystallisation of aspirin and lastly determining the melting point of the aspirin. For preparation of Aspirin, acetic anhydride is added to the measured amount of salicylic acid. Sulphuric acid is added and heated for a short period to complete reaction. Water is added once removed from heat with addition of cold water and suction filtration is carried out. As for recrystallisation of aspirin, collected crude product prepared in preparation of aspirin which is impure is dissolved in ethanol and hot distilled water is added to the solution. The watch glass together with the filter paper was weighed and the weighed filter paper was used to carry out the suction filtration. Moreover, the crystals were places on the watch glass after drying and it s weight was calculated. Then, determine the melting point of aspirin using necessary apparatus. The percent yield was about 76.7% whereas the temperature range is between 134.2 to 136.1 ÃÅ'Ã…  ÃƒÅ'Ã…  C. The results are within the expected range and i would conclude our experiment was a success. Felic Hoffman who is a german chemistry formed aspirin in 1897 by looking into French Chemistry Charles Gergardts experiment and rediscovered the acetylsalicylic acid and produced stable state of aspirin (The Great Idea Finder 2006). Salicylic acid was extracted from parts of willow trees (Dermaxime 2011). Aspirin is a derivative of salicylic acid that is a mild agent that reduces pain by relieving headache and muscle and joint aches (History of aspirin 2011). Aspirin is also used to treat mild to moderate pain from conditions such as muscle aches, toothaches and headaches. Aspirin works in our body by blocking certain natural substances in your body to reduce pain and swelling (Aspirin 2011). Esterification is a chemical reaction that is used to make esters in which the Carboxylic acid combines with an alcohol to form an ester [CH3COOC2H5] in the presence of a catalyst which is usually concentrated sulphuric acid. It is reversible reaction and they produce sweet smelling products. Esters are widely used in fragrance and flavour industry (Esterification reaction 2010). Aspirin has to be recrystallised several times to obtain purity. The properties that allow this to take place is its bulky chemical group, solubility in water and its strong intermolecular forces between the aspirin mole cules that allows it to make up the solid substance. Applications Aspirin can be used in various medical uses such as relieving mild aches and pains. It can also be used for a little complex treatment such as prevention of blood clots and prevent heart attack and stroke (Aspirin and Heart attacks 2005). However, there are side effects such as internal bleeding to the stomach and other internal organs and also cause people to experience asthma attacks and undesirable swellings (Vitamin Diary, Aspirin 2010). Theory Esterification Reaction Figure 1: Esterification Reaction (Preparation of Aspirin 1996) Shown in figure 1, is the esterification process. To form aspirin, Salicylic acid is reacted with acetic anhydride using sulphuric acid as a catalyst to produce Aspirin and Acetic acid. Sulphuric acid is used in this experiment as a catalyst to increase the rate of the reaction without being consumed in the process. Ethanoic Anhydride There are three reasons why ethanoic anhydride is used rather than other reagents such as ethanoyl chloride even thou they yield aspirin. The reasons are, ethanoic anhydride is cheaper to be purchased compared to ethanoyl chloride. It is also safer to use as it is less corrosive and does not readily hydrolyse in water unlike the other reagent. Moreover, it does not produce dangerous fumes of hydrogen chloride like ethanoyl chloride (Chemguide 2004). Procedure Preparation of Aspirin Firstly, approximately, 2.4g of salicylic acid was weighed into a dry 100ml conical flask and recorded. 6ml of acetic anhydride is added into the flask containing the salicylic acid in the fumehood. Then, 3-4 drops of concentrated sulphuric acid is added to the mixture and swirled. The mixture was also heated in the water bath for 10 to 15 minutes for the completing of reactions. After removing the flask from the water bath, 1ml of distilled water is added using a dropper to decompose the excess acetic anhydride present in the solution. 40ml of cold water is added and is stirred and rub using a stirring rod to induce crystallisation. After suction filtration is carried out the crude product is then collected. Re-crystallization of Aspirin An approximate 30ml of hot water is added to the solution and the crude product is dissolved in a 100ml conical flask with approximately 5ml of ethanol added to it and warmed on a hot plate. As there is solid separating out, the solution will be warmed till it is completely dissolved in the solution and was then allowed to cool. Then, a clean, dry watch glass with 2 filter papers was weighed and recorded. During the suction filtration of the solution, the recrystallised product is collected to the filter paper and was transferred to the watch glass. This was then put into the oven at 100oC for 15 20 minutes. Crystals together with the filter paper and the watch glass was then placed into desiccator for 5 to 10 minutes for all the liquid present to be drained. The dried crystals together with the filter papers and watch glass was weighed and recorded. The weight of dried, recrystallised aspirin is then calculated. The expected yield of aspirin was calculated from the amount of aspiri n used and the percentage yield of the dried, recrystallised aspirin was calculated. Melting point determination of aspirin The aspirin was packed into the small capillary tubes and put into the optimelt melting apparatus to determine the melting temperature of Aspirin. Results Mass Mass of salicylic acid weighed (a) = 2.40g Mass of filter paper watch glass (b) = 32.96g Mass of dried, recrystallised aspirin, filter paper watch glass (c) = 34.41g Mass of dried, recrystallised aspirin (d) is calculated by taking the mass of dried, recrystallised aspirin, filter paper and watch glass (c) which is 34.41g and subtract away the mass of filter paper and watch glass (b) which is 32.96g. (d) = (c) (b) = 34.41g 32.96g = 1.45g Therefore the mass of dried, recrystallised aspirin is 1.45g. Percent Yield To obtain the percent yield of aspirin, we have to find the moles of salicylic acid used first by taking the mass of the salicylic acid which is 2.40g and divide by the mr of salicylic acid. Number of moles of salicylic acid used (e) = mass/mr = 2.40/138 = 0.017391 mol (mol wt of salicylic acid = 138) Therefore the expected number of moles of aspirin (f) = 0.017391 mol To calculate the expected mass of aspirin, we have to take the expected moles (f) which is 0.017391 mol multiply by the mr of aspirin 180. Expected mass of aspirin (g) = 0.01739 x 180 = 3.1302 g (mol wt = 180) Then the percent yield can be calculated by taking the mass of dried recrystallised aspirin (d) which is 1.45g and divide by the expected mass of aspirin 3.1302g multiply by 100%. Percent yield = (d) / (g) ÃÆ'- 100% = 46.3% 4.3 Melting Point Temperature range = 134.2 ÃÅ'Ã…  C to 136.1 ÃÅ'Ã…  C 4.4 Appearance White, thin, flaky crystals formed. Discussion My Results According to my experiment and the results, i conclude that my end product is not really pure. This can be seen from the calculation made based on my experiment using this formula, Percent yield = (mass of dried recrystallised aspirin / expected mass of aspirin) x 100% Percent yield is the amount of substance we have obtained in total in the experiment. The experimental yield percentage is different from the theoretical percentage is because there is loss of product often occurring during the isolation and purification steps (The Synthesis of Aspirin 2010). The percent yield of the aspirin obtained from the experiment is 46.3% yield. The higher the yield percentage, the higher the purity of the aspirin will be. Therefore, according to the results, the aspirin obtained is relatively impure. However, the low percent yield can also mean that the reactant has not reacted completely or the reaction is not complete. However there is also another possibility for the lower percent yield value. It is the addition of water when carrying out suction filtration. As we have to wash down the crystals before we carry out the suction filtration, some crystals might have dissolved. Hence, the amount of water we use to wash down the crystals during suction filtratio n might have affected the percent yield too. The aspirin crystals are packed into the small capillary tubes and make sure they are all compressed without air gaps. Then they are placed into the melting apparatus. The melting temperature range of aspirin according to my experiment is between 134.2 ÃÅ'Ã…  C to 136.1 ÃÅ'Ã…  C. The theoretical melting temperature is 140 ÃÅ'Ã…  C. Since the range is near the theoretical value, this shows that the aspirin obtained is quite pure and hence contained fewer impurities. From both the calculations, I can evaluate that the aspirin is relatively pure to a however due to some experimental errors or improper techniques practiced, the percent yield is not up to expectation and moreover the incompletion of reaction might also be one of the reasons to the results obtained in this experiment. Experimental errors There were some experimental errors that have caused variation in my results compared to the theoretical solutions. Firstly, after the obtaining the crude product from the first suction filtration, we had to transfer it to the conical flask to carry out recrystallisation. During this process, there were some crystals that got blown away by the wind and some crystals poured on the desk too. Hence this might have affected the percent yield too. Therefore, I had learnt that all wind source must be switched off and be kept away from when carrying out this process to ensure accuracy in results. Secondly, once we have dissolved and during the second round suction filtration in attempt to obtain the pure aspirin, we forgot to use 2 filter papers but instead use only one filter paper on the Buchner funnel. Hence, due to the pressure, the filter paper tore and our crude product entered the filter flask that was containing the impurities and other liquid. Therefore we had to suction filtrate the whole mixture in the filter flask and hence, this might have led to presence of more impurities or lose in product. This might have affected the results. Figure 2: Apparatus of suction filtration (Chemistry 104: Synthesis of Aspirin 2010) Therefore, from this experiment I learn that I must be more alert and careful when I carry out suction filtration to avoid unnecessary hassle and inaccuracy of results and calculation. Conclusion From this experiment, I have learnt how to carry out suction filtration in the right way and to be cautious at all time when handling chemicals and so on. The major experimental findings are that, accuracy and attentiveness is very important in this experiment to obtain aspirin that is pure. However, there will be some environmental effects that will still affect the experiment to a small extent. Finally the objective of the experiment is met and the results were acceptable as it is quite accurate. Recommendations To improve on accuracy of results, we have to take into concern environmental factors such as the fan in the lab. It could affect the experimental findings as it blows away tiny light weight crystals while transferring them from one place to another. This would lead to loss of recrystallised crystals and cause variation in our calculations. When carrying out the suction filtration, it is strongly advisable to use 2 or more filter papers to prevent the tearing of the filter papers during the suction filtration due to the pressure. This would lead to the crystals to be in contact with lots of water and cause the crystals to dissolve. This might also cause inaccuracy to results. Moreover, when transferring the crystals into the Buchner flask before suction filtration, cold water is the most suitable to wash down the crystals as it minimises dissolving of crystals unlike fresh new solvents. All the chemicals must be handles in the fumehood to prevent any corrosive chemicals such as salicylic acid, acetic anhydride and sulphuric acid to be in contact with our body. This is so as these chemicals can cause irritation to body parts such as eyes and skin and can also cause bad burns.